The Victorians -Art

Queen Victoria (1837-1901)

The Victorian period (1837-1901) in Britain was one huge industrial and technological change, shocking divisions were between rich and poor, sensational crimes, spectacular entertainments for the masses and a lot of dirt and poverty with diseases was going on.

Life in Victorians was changing faster than ever before, paintings were recorded like the cinema of that day (they show what they live in those times and tell amazing stories). The arts became popular, rich and famous.

Works of art were comissioned by
- The Royalty
-The middle class (wealthy industrialists)
- The academic tradition was supported

When Queen Victoria came to the throne people were at best uneasy and in its worst, terrified by these vast gatherings of humanity, nothing like them has existed before. By the time she died men and women of the age had pined an entirely new way of living, they have invented the modern city.

Oil on Canvas 137,2 x 317, 5cm Israel in Egypt (1867) -Edward Poynter

 Edward Poynter was born in Paris and then moved to Britain with his parents. He was an English neo-classical painter, he made a great impression to Frederick Leighton when he was 17 years old in 1853 in Rome. He was much influenced by his neo-classical ideas. Then returned back to London and continued his studies there.

He became best known for his large historical painting, such as Israel in Egypt -1867 that is found in the Guildhall Art Gallery of London. 

 In this painting the artist is showing three different classes, those that are pushing and pulling with all their force and getting whipped like slaves while delivering, when the others are commanding them to move. On the left side of the painting we see an important figure carried on the throne chair.
All this gives you a mood of people suffering and feeling pain with all their work stress, the angry feeling for slavery for beating them and the high priority class of getting served.

The artist combined Israel in Egypt with history taken from the bible. He took the story from the Old Testment book of Exodus, this is to present the exile of the Israelites against eclectic looking background of classical Egyptian monuments.

I compare the painting of 'Israel in Egypt with the classical background mood of Monarch of the Glen by Edwin Henry Landseer.

Oil on Canvas 1,580 x 1,538. 'The Monarch of  the Glen' (1851) by E.H.Landseer

Sir Edwin.H. Landseer is an English exceptional British animal painter,what he painted here the artist is representing a certain loyalty, with its straight chin and the way the antlers are, show a strong power and integrity. The subtle of the deers tone is very fine and precised, but then looking at the colours of the fog at the background give a dark feeling looks like smoke is coming up from somewhere and the deer seems like it received the victory from escaping from the dark. 

Reference:
L. Picard, n.d. Victorians. [Online] Available at:  <http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/victorians/victorianhome.html> [accessed 28 February 2014]

ergoproxy234u, 2011. The VIctorians (2009) E01 Painting the Town. [Video Online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmP9KL7Io9A> [Accessed 28 February 2014]

A. Shepherd, 2001. Article. Overview of the Victorian Era. [Online] Available at: <http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Victorians/article.html> [Accessed 28 February 2014]

The Guildhall Art Gallery, City of London, n.d. Israel In Egypt. [Online] Available at: <http://www.expo-orientalisme.be/artworks/en/b_egyptomania-1867_poynter_israel_en_egypte-1.html> [Accessed 28 February 2014]

TVO Channel, 2010. The Arts of Sir Edwin Landseer. [Video Online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sY4oq5XR920> [Accessed 28 February 2014]

The Pre- Raphaelites -Art

The Pre Raphaelite Brotherhood brought notoriety to British art in 19th Century (1848). The most people that were mentioned in that era were John Everett Millais, William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. (They were like brothers, continually together and confronted each other)

Seven rebellious young artists in London was formed at the same date of the realisms which they called themselves Pre Raphaelite brotherhood. They went against the contemporary academic painting, they decided to overturn British art. The Brotherhood instead imitated the art of late medieval and early Renaissance until the time of Raphael.

The art characteristics were detailed in form, using bright colours that recalls the tempera paint used by the medieval artists, subject matter of a noble, religious or the moralizing nature composition.
The brotherhood wanted to transmit a message of artistic renewal and moral reform by getting inspired with feelings in their art with seriousness, sincerity and truth to nature.

Note: ''The Pre Raphaelite group was interested in literature and poetry as much as the visual art from the very start.''

Prof PretteJohn, E., 2013. 1/2 The Pre Raphaelites  (Ep1) [Youtube]  29 July. Available at:<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4QMQmccid3Y> [Accessed 27 February 2014]


The subjects they treated were varied.
Contemporary social issues:

- Emigration
- Prostitution
- Religious reform



They drew inspirations from literacy sources that gave them moral themes or stories, such as in this Ophelia by Millais.

Ophelia

Description:

Ophelia is a painting by John Everett Millais in 1852. The scene was depicted from Shakespear's 'Hamlet', Act IV, Scene vii, (as Shakespear was a favourite source for Victorian) Ophelia driven out of her mind when her father is murdered by her lover Hamlet, drowns herself in a stream.


The medium used in this painting was oil paint on canvas,  762 x 1118 mm.
This painting is known for being the perfect contrast between ''Love'' and ''Death''. It illustrates the moment when Ophelia floats on the water just after killing her self to death. She is showing her pathetic and tragic death when she's singing songs, gathering flowers and slips into a book.  This painting with small dimensions could inspire painters but poets too.

- Ophelia is showing her process of drowning.
- All the attention has been suspended on the natural white daisy flowers, he included a lot of flowers to relate symbolically the plight of Ophelia.
- It is very accurate and precise on the way how he painted the bark and branches, the leaves and all the plants surrounded her.
- She is dying in a very natural way.
- The scene looks calm with the environment surrounded. 

Wilson, S., 1991. Tate Gallery:An Illustrated Companion, Tate Gallery, London revised edition 1991, p.83. [Image Online] Available at: <http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/millais-ophelia-n01506> [Accessed 27 February 2014]



The first canvas of William Holman Hunt was 'Rienzi'. This was an interpretation of the themes and was exhibited in the Royal Academy in 1849.

Rienzi

"Rienzi Vowing to Obtain Justice for the Death of his Young Brother, Slain in a Skirmish between the Colonna and Orsini Factions, 1849-49 (oil on canvas)" by William Holman Hunt; Original size (cm): 86.3x122; Location: Private Collection; Medium: oil on canvas

Rienzi
Rienzi modelled by Rosetti and to his right (as the kneeling night) is Millais. The first of Hunt's pictures include the famous Pre Raphaelite Brotherhood monogram. The subject is taken from Bulwer Lytton's (the first Baron -an English novelist, poet, playwriter and politician) Rienzi, 'the last of the Roman tribunes'. The background was carefully painted to fall in with Ruskin's ideas. The soldiers on the far left are showing natural poses, which shows Hunt's inability in his painting.



In 1849 Dante Gabriel Rossetti also exhibited his first important painting 'The Girlhood of Mary Virgin' and 'Ecce Ancilla Domini'. At about the same time he met Elizabeth Elianora Siddal, who was a milliner's assistant, who became a model of his paintings and sketches. They were engagged in 1851, but did not get married until 1860.

The Girlhood of Mary Virgin

 The Girlhood of Mary virgin
The virgin Mary is shown as a young girl, working embroidery with her mother, St. Anne. Her father, St Joachim is trimming or cutting the vines. The picture is full of symbolic details. The palm branch and the thorny briar rose on the wall mention the Christs passion. The dove represents the Holy Spirit. This was Rosetti's first completed painting and the first picture to be exhibited with the initials, for Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, inscribed on it.

Tate Britain, 2007. The girlhood of Mary Virgin 1848-9 [Image online] Available at: <https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/rossetti-the-girlhood-of-mary-virgin-n04872> [Accessed: 27 February 2014]

Ecce Ancilla Domini

Ecce Ancilla Domini   


This painting depicts a real moment of the annunciation of Mary. When Rosetti was making this painting he started off with the white ground, this was considered revolutionary because the art wounds of the time used dark tone and dark brown.

It took him five months to complete because the brushes were so fine, Rosetti also used his colours so odd because he wanted to use the purest and the brightest pigment, you can see it from the lily which the angel is holding, he used a lot of white. The lily symbolizes the purity because of its whiteness and is repeated on the embroidery at the side of the bed.The angel is also pointing the stem of the lily to the woman.

The angel doesn't have the traditional wings due to Rosetti is trying to portrait the realism.The painting is putting a sense of reality, it seems like the lady is scared and worried about what the angel is trying to tell her. The feeling of fear definitely ties with the idea of the realism as it seems like it is emphasized in this painting .

Jarek, 2011.Dante Gabriel Rossetti- Ecce Ancilla Domini C.1850 [Image online] website: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti_-_Ecce_Ancilla_Domini!_-_WGA20105.jpg> [Accessed: 27 February 2014]



Rossetti's early works have medieval themes such as this First Anniversary of the Death of Beatrice.
Later he turned to representations of female beauty.
Rosetti was an important figure in the movement. The idea of the movement was his and he kept the 
group alive by promoting its second generation of artists.
 
 


















Edward Burne-Jones -Symbolist Movement


 
 William Morris that is another important figure in -Arts and Crafts Movement.
 

 
Howard David Johnson -Twenty first Century




Sources:
- Meagher, J., 2013. 'The Pre Raphaelites' Heilbrunn Timeline Of Art. [Online] Available at: <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/praf/hd_praf.htm> [Accessed 27 February 2014]

- Art Magick, 1996-2014. Biography of W.H.Hunt [Online] Available at: <http://www.artmagick.com/pictures/artist.aspx?artist=william-holman-hunt> [Accessed 27 February 2014]

- Hermes, 2009. The Pre Raphaelite Art, William Holman Hunt- Rienzi blog, [blog] 24 August, Available at: <http://blog.ac-rouen.fr/lyc-senghor-le-petit-prince/2012/05/24/an-analysis-of-millais%E2%80%99s-ophelia-2/> [Accessed: 27 February 2014]

- Andrews, 2012. An analysis of Millais’s Ophelia. [Online] Available at: <http://blog.ac-rouen.fr/lyc-senghor-le-petit-prince/2012/05/24/an-analysis-of-millais%E2%80%99s-ophelia-2/> [Accessed: 27 February 2014]

- Art Documentaries, 2013. 1/2 The Pre- Raphaelites (Ep1). 29 July [Video Online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4QMQmccid3Y> [Accessed: 27 February 2014].
- Art Documentaries, 2013. 2/2 The Pre- Raphaelites (Ep1). 29 July [Video Online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTWG9Nkz6pU> [Accessed: 27 February 2014].
- Art Documentaries, 2013. 1/2 The Pre- Raphaelites (Ep2). 29 July [Video Online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fb79bmJhhaI> [Accessed: 27 February 2014].
- Art Documentaries, 2013. 2/2 The Pre- Raphaelites (Ep2). 29 July [Video Online] Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8LCUxu9m1k> [Accessed: 27 February 2014].

Industrial Revolution -Design

 

Untitled photo of the Industrial Revolution. [n.d]. Retrieved 27 February 2014 



The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where a lot of things were changing in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transport, and technology had mostly effected the socioeconomic and cultural conditions that started in the United Kingdom then spread throughout Europe, North America and eventually the world.

Before the Industrial Revolution everything was made by hand but now with the Industrial Revolution everything has changed. Powers and streams were created to mechanize the textile industry. Suddenly mills and factories were producing textiles. Soon the factories weren't doing only textiles but furniture and also everyday items. Many farmers were leaving from their farms and moved in the cities where they worked in factories.

Cotton Spinning Machine

Then there was Samuel Slater that brought the industrial revolution to America. He designed the textile mills. He learned textile machinery as an apprentice to a pioneer in the British industry. He brought the knowledge to America,  He also designed the textile mills in America and reconstructed a cotton spinning machine from his memory of the blueprint although it was illegal to bring any Industrial Revolution  ideas to America because these ideas gave Britain an advantage over America.

The Assembly Line

The biggest innovation of the Industrial Revolution was the assembly line. Workers were lined up all the way, each worker was responsible for adding the specific component in the process. This mass production created much faster production than ever before. Prices of products went down. The assembly line enabled factor honors to unskilled labor like women and children. Unskilled men would be brought in but he can be easily fired or treated miserably. 

Women working in the Assembly Line

But workers did not let this condition go down, in the 19th beginning of the 20th century there were over 10,000 strikes! And riots against the capital class. This was also at the same time that the rich guy over the richer built massive mentions to live like kings. The poor lived in rundown tennis. It wasn't until the 20th Century with what's called the progressive era, a government started intervening the past laws of these harsh consequences of the Industrial Revolution.  

The 19th Century London boasted the steam engine, world's first underground railways and the first photograph.

Steam Engine

1st Underground Railway

1st Photograph

The Great Exhibition (The Crystal Palace)

The Great Exhibition, 1851 (Front View)

(The Interior) of the Crystal Palace

 The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held at the Crystal Palace in London. This was a building created by the architecture, Joseph Paxton. It took 9 months to be done. The building was mostly made by iron and glass. It became known as the 'Crystal Palace', the purpose of the Exhibition was to bring together exhibits from all over the world. It's enormous as it covered 17 acres. Full grown trees were fit inside the palace. There were flags on the outside and flags on the inside, there were great fountains on the outside and on the inside.On the inside it was very colourful and so much to see! There were sculptures from Belgium, India's Hall, Model Boats, Canadian Hall, Furniture Galleries, Chinese Court, the Russian Hall, United States wing, the Hardware section and so much other interesting things.




Reference:
CC-BY-SA, 2014. Industrial Revolution. [Online] Available at: <http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Industrial_Revolution.html> [Accessed 27 February 2014].

Cohen, Isaac. American Management and British Labor: A Comparative Study of the Cotton Spinning Industry. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. [Online] Available at: <http://www.answers.com/topic/industrial-revolution> [Accessed 27 February 2014].

A&E Television Networks LLC, 2014. The Industrial Revolution. [Online] Available at: <http://www.history.com/topics/industrial-revolution/videos/the-industrial-revolition?m=528e394da93ae&s=undefined&f=1&free=false> [Accessed 27 February 2014].

Worldstaracademy, 2010.The Great Exhibition of 1851. [Video Online] Available at:<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqM6PXyp5MA> [Accessed 27 February 2014].

Short Notes:

o Greek -Classical
              -Hellenistic-(Alexander the Great-exaggerated movements)
              -Archaic

o Roman -They were good at war + weapons
               - Infrastructure (communication)
                -Aqueducts (transportation of water)
               -They invented concrete

o Early Christians -Period of Christianity

o Byzantine -Were inspired by the Greek, Turkey etc.
                    -(Constantine the Great)

o Middle Ages -> Charlemagne
                         -> Romanesque (looks like Roman architecture)
                         -> Gothic

The vikings were good in sailing, navigating and making weapons

o Renaissance -Rinascimento - (Re-Birth) 
           |
Re-Birth of Good Art

o Baroque -misshapen in form

o Rococo -Development of Baroque
         |
(French Baroque)
End of 18th Century -Luis IV/II/VI

Exhibition 1 -Dreams, Expressions, Reflections (1964-2014)

Date of Visit: 26/ 02/ 2014

Name of Practitioner: Anthony Lucian Cauchi

Title of Exhibition: Retrospective (1964-2014) Dreams, Expressions, Reflections.

This is the back of the Lady Peacock. Pic 2.

This is the front of the Lady Peacock. Pic 1.

'Lady Peacock', 2010.  

The material used for this free standing sculpture is ceramics.

From the front picture the sculpture looks like he's interpreting the (women) humans figure and at the same time he's using the peacocks feathers (as it is shown in picture 2). The peacock feathers design is quite repetitive and flowing. The colour that the artist used on the outline of each feather is gold, that represents a certain importance and richness. The lady is also in a stiff position showing an action like she's wearing a peacocks costume.  
I liked the artist thought of how he interpret the peacock feathers and using the lady figure. It looks like the sculpture is delivering a message of the lady dreaming or wishing to be a peacock.  

This wall hanging sculpture had no title, but the material used is ceramics.
The artist created two portraits that both are showing different expressions. In the sculpture looks like there is the mother and the son. The mother is showing an affection of caring. Her eyes are open and her hand is showing action of holding her son safely and keeping him protective. Meanwhile the child is showing like he's having a nice, calm sleep.

I chose this sculpture because I liked the composition of both the mother and the child, that are showing an affection of love and protection between them two.

'The Charge of the Light Brigade', 2011. 102x78cm

Medium used: acrylic

The message of this painting is like of a battle fight going into action. Although this looks modern abstract art, the figures are still recognisable. Some soldiers are on the horses and others are on feet with all their armour suits and with their long swords ready to fight versus the other lot of the silhouette figures. The lot of the coloured abstract figures are showing like they are going for the battle with a stronger enthusiasm to win the battle. When the other lot that are in silhouette are also showing the same expressions, to go in for the battle, fight and take the victory. 

The composition of this painting looks like there are three points of perspective. There are a lot of colours, vivid effect on lines and the figure that is placed in the middle is showing a strong action of getting in the battle. 

The silhouette figures are being represented as the other group that are going against the others with shields and swords ready to fight.  

I liked this painting because it is showing a strong affection that is based on the battle and the vivid colours are representing the confusion of a number of people that are ready to fight.

 

 

Vincent V.Gogh, 1886. Self-Portrait. [Image Online]
Available at: < http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/vincent-van-gogh/self-portrait-1886 >

'Pauline', 1985. 30x40cm
Medium used: Oils

This painting has been given a Bronze Medal from the Postal Union World Art.

From this portrait I can see a mild natural expression. The warm complementary colours the artist used reminded me of the self portrait of Van Gogh, where he has the shade on the side of his face. It looks like A. Lucian Cauchi has used the same colour techniques as Van Gogh did.
Although this painting has a special composition of the way the artist put it, he just painted her face mask and left the background with brush strokes all over.
I liked this portrait because I've seen something unusual in it and that attracted me. Normally other artists paint the whole portrait face and sometimes they even include the shoulders, but this artist didn't.     

'Messallina', 2012.
Medium used: Ceramics

This small wall hanging sculpture has a natural and simple composition. The leaves that the female figure has next to her hand gives a replica of the Art Nouveau style.They also seem like they're representing a reflection of a victory. The lady is in a very firm position with small dotted pores repetitive design at the background. The colour of the sculpture is bronze with black smoke used for shades. The sculpture is very decorative and organic.


Thoughts and Comments:
 

All the paintings and sculptures that were represented in this exhibition had to do with the given title 'Dreams, Expressions, Reflections'. I found it very interesting, artistic and inspiring . From one to another the styles and mediums vary. Each one has a thought and gives you the impression of a hard crafts man work that wanted to express his imagination to something that can be created.

From his work I noticed that he interpreted a lot of figures that all represent different moods, positions, colours, styles and compositions. His influences were mostly based on nature and some others were representing periods where they showed battles and significant details that show a meaning. All this reminded me of the Medieval period. 

As techniques I used from this artist in ceramics were the dotted pores from the sculpture of 'Messalina'. I have used that technique as an exercises as part of my test pieces, I also experimented with a mixture of coloured glazes and also used the forming technique like the feathers of the 'Lady peacock'. From the oil painting 'Pauline' I used the large brush strokes with the medium of acrylics and watercolours to create that sort of texture and mood from it.   

Twenty-Seven Names- Design

This is a collection created by Rachel Easting and Analji Stewart, designers. They have a gallery style named/called Twenty-Seven Names, this collection has been inspired from the 19th century by the artist Edouard Manet. They have developed their idea using prints, colours, cuts and details. They say that it brings them up two words in mind; Impressive impressionism!



I liked this design because it's natural, reminds me of the Autumn season and although the pattern is all the same along with the background, the colour on the model is slightly lighter than the background.



This is another design I liked which has a different pattern from the first picture (above). The difference between the first design and this one is the size of the pattern. This design is more calm and lets you understand more what there is (it reminds me of my parents old pictures where they used to dress like this with the peace symbol and flourish design).While the picture above hurts your eyes because the pattern is quite small and need a bit of time to understand the printed pattern.



I chose to put this picture because I liked the chequered design, also because it came out more in the fashion especially on shirts. The dark colours reminded me of a military or of a school uniform.




Reference:
- 2011.Twenty-Seven Names AW 2012. [Online] Available at: <http://blacklognz.blogspot.com/2011/08/twenty-seven-names-aw-2012.html> [Accessed 23 February 2014]

Realism- Art

In the 19th century of the Realism there was an era of big politics, scientific and cultural changes that changed the art of painting. Artists from the official academy and salon chose to liberate themselves from classical themes and styles and explored a vast new world. It was the era of Realism, Romanticism and Orientalism. It was the time of the plein-air (in the open air) painting and traveller artists.



This is one of the central figures Courbet Gustav. In the middle nineteenth-century, Courbet's art caused much of a disagreement at the state sponsored salon because it went against standard academic practice.

A Burial at Ornans
1849-50; Oil on Canvas, 314 x 663 cm (10'' 3 1/2'' x 21' 9''); Musee d'Orsay, Paris

Here Courbet gathered together fifty-one men, and children on the grounds of the new, and painted on a huge canvas almost 22 feet long. The mourners include the artist's father and, the town mayor, Courbet's late grandfather, and a spotted dog. 

No one in the picture is paying much attention to either the coffin or the future resting place of the deceased. The crowd is composed in three discrete groups -women mourners at right, clergy and pall bearers at left, and a bourgeois (belongings) and mongrel dog at center right that are compositionally and emotionally disconnected from each other and the funeral ritual. 

The postures and expressions of rapt piety among the mourners in Pil's exactly contemporaneous, acclaimed (The Death of a Sister of Charity).

The Death of a Sister of Charity
1850; Oil on Canvas, 95 x 10' (241 x 305); Isidore Pils

Adding to the impression of artifice and distraction Courbet's work is the instant black and white of the canvas (compare the dog's coat to the drapery over the coffin), as well as the odd superimposition of figures above one another.



Reference:
-Top,M.,2013.19th Century Realism.19thcenturyrealism.com, [blog]-, available at:<http://19thcenturyrealism.com/> [Accessed 21 February 2014]

-Gunn,D.,2011.Romanticism vs. Realism. [Online] Available at:<http://www.slideshare.net/gunnd/cod-humanities-romanticism>[Accessed 21 February 2014]

-Pioch,N.,2003. Courbet Gustave.[Online] Available at:<http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/courbet/>[Accessed 21 February 2014]

-Stephen F. Einsenman, Thomas Crow, Brian Lukacher, Linda Nochlin , Frances K. Pohl,1994. Nineteenth Century Art, a critical history. USA: Thames and Hudson.

Neo Classicism -Art

The period of the Neo Classicism which started in the second half of the 18th centuries in Europe is a style of art that has been developed from a classical antiquity artistic style. The Neoclassical style took place from first-hand on the observation and reproduction of antique works and came to dominate European architecture, painting, sculpture and decorative arts.



Jacques-Louis David The intervention of the Sabine Women 1799. (386 x 520)

This art work was completed on a huge canvas in 1799. The painting is based on the legend of Titus Tatius who was the Sabine King of Cures. The woman in the middle of the painting is his own daughter Hersilia, who placed herself in between her father (left) and her husband Romulus (right). The painting itself depicts love prevailing over conflict. (pg.42, pic.28).







Jacques-Louis David The Oath of the Horatii Between the Hands of Their Father 1785. (329.9 x 424.8)

This is another painting of the same artist in which he is representing the three sons and the father. They're showing violence and a constructive role. This tragedy happened before 'The intervention of the Sabine women'-1799. What has happened is that the three brothers agreed to end the war by fighting and sacrificing their lives for the good of Rome. On the right side of the painting there are three ladies that show a worried emotion. One of the women whose name was Camilla, was engaged to one of the victims. The structure of this painting shows a strength of order with the 3 arches, 3 women and the 3 men. There's a clarity of thought and termination about the composition. The colours on the women look softer, along with curved lines that represent the position of worries.  


Reference:
-2000–2013.The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [online] Available at: <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roma/hd_roma.htm> [accessed 16 February 2014]

-Stephen F. Einsenman, Thomas Crow, Brian Lukacher, Linda Nochlin , Frances K. Pohl,1994. Nineteenth Century Art, a critical history. USA: Thames and Hudson.